Who is Jeffrey Dahmer Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Who is Jeffrey Dahmer - Research Paper Example Certain episodes of his life are fit as a fiddle his character as a killer, be that as it may, it can't be expressed as the motivation to give anybody freehand to do what he was doing. This paper will break down the character of Jeffery Dahmer as a killer who was engaged with doing unlawful gay exercises lastly murdering and mortifying the cadavers of his casualties during his criminal life. As per his folks expressed supposition, Dahmer was at first cool disapproved and furthermore had bunch exercises with his companions and colleagues however after his medical procedure of hernia when he was just six years of age, his character all in all demonstrated various changes. Hernia medical procedure of Dahmer can be ordered as the main rate of Dahmer’s life that got some psychological issues his life as he moved from being an ordinary youngster to a kid demonstrating unusual attributes. (Davis, 1991). Later on, he moved from his private spot to Bath Ohio that additional to his isol ation, as he needs to leave every one of his mates. He began indicating enthusiasm for school papers giving criminal stories. He additionally built up a preference for drinking (Masters, 1993). As an understudy, he was bad and demonstrated little worry towards his investigations. The cruel real factors of life occupied his dad and mom. Their disengagement added fuel to his contrary character and his dad couldn't show legitimate worry towards a child who began as being negative as a young person. His mom left him and his dad needed to move starting with one spot then onto the next spot regarding the business other than building up an illegal relationship with another lady. After partition from his mother, he felt himself increasingly shaky and surrendered. His being left lonely and relinquished constrained him to stroll on a way, which was not in the slightest degree average for a general public where virtues and morals matter (Masters, 1993). His exercises were absolutely against th e virtues of a general public having a maxim â€Å"Live and Let Live†. During his investigations at Ohio State University, dissimilar to an understudy like demeanor, Dahmer demonstrated no enthusiasm for his examinations and was associated with monstrous drinking propensities. College organization took him to the errand commonly for his apathetic mentality yet their activities neglected to put him destined for success. Under his father’s pressurized perseverance, Dahmer joined the Army for a time of six years in the year 1979. His dad thought about that by joining the power, he would have the option to redress his character and individual issues however his propensities for drinking were wild. He couldn't proceed with his calling in Army and got out inside a time of two years in particular. (Davis, 1991). In the wake of being released from Army, he was so intellectually upset that he engaged in all the more drinking and building up unlawful and illicit relationship wit h his companions. One such starting episode that occurred in his life was with a 19 years of age kid named Steven whom he welcome to his father’s home to drink and to have intercourse with him. He drank regularly during the sex. Dahmer’s first execute was this kid as he was hit hard on his head for his battle to leave Dahmer. Dahmer slaughtered the kid as well as slashed up his body into numerous pieces and put the pieces in plastic sacks and put in the wooden box around his father’s property. After a significant timeframe, he opened up the wooden box and crushed bones and head of Steven for putting in the timberland. This shows Dahmer was intellectually not inattentive, as he realized that he needed to conceal what he had fouled up. His age was 18 years when he killed referenced kid (Davis, 1991). Jeffery Dahmer proceeded to

Research Paper on Pollution Prevention

Blast or Bust: Prohibition Coursework Was will undoubtedly come up short? A-: Study source An and B. How far do these two records concur and disallowance? Source an is managing two distinct sources yet both about the subject which is Prohibition. Huge numbers of history specialists have their own supposition about it, yet the primary inquiry is of these two-account show much do they concede to about Prohibition. Source A will be an area of composing that was distributed in 1973 and was taken from a history book. They plainly express that antiquarians differ about what was mostly to fault for the presentation of forbiddance. By 1917 twenty-three states had just had the boycott instated that is expressed in the source. Fundamental potential clarifications that are expressed in the source are the terrible impacts cantinas, wartime worry for protecting grain for food, feeling against the German Americans who were significant in preparing and refining and the impact of the Anti-cantina class t when huge quantities of men were missing in the military. Despite the fact that numerous individuals were against disallowance then again there were numerous individuals who were for it. This is appeared in the source when they express the twenty-three states had become ‘dry’. The source additionally expresses that is was fundamentally men this is indicated when they state that the military num bers were exceptionally low. The explanation that there were awful inclination between the Americans and the German Americans were on the grounds that World War 1 had not occurred to some time in the past. The source additionally expresses that it had made the greatest criminal blast in American history and maybe in all cutting edge history. â€Å"No prior law had conflicted with the day by day customs of such huge numbers of Americans.† This last sentence of the source is significant in light of the fact that it wholes everything into one line and I realize that the source concurred with the key inquiry on account of that sentence. Source B is taken from a history book also however was distributed in 1979. This source clarifies more what occurred after preclusion had come into law. The source enlightens us regarding the associations that were supporting the prohibition on liquor, for example, the Women’s Christian Temperance association and the Anti cantina alliance. Both of these associations needed to stop alcholism.they did this by squeezing congress to boycott the utilization of grain for either fermenting or refining.

Idioms Translation and Cultural Differences

Expressions Translation and Cultural Differences Expressions Translation and Cultural Differences Unique: As we probably am aware, language is carrier of culture and figures of speech are intensely socially stacked expressions and sentences. To decipher English figures of speech includes deterrents for Chinese highlights. At the point when a figure of speech is being deciphered, we will see it regularly hard as interpreted. While the way to decipher is that its metaphorical significance ought to be remained. In this paper, it is from day to day environments, customs, religions conviction and chronicled references to depict social contrasts among English and Chinese expressions, and nitty gritty portrayal of strategies in English and Chinese maxims interpretation. Catchphrases: Language , Cultural contrasts , Idioms , Translation strategies 1. Presentation Language is the bearer of culture. Both English and Chinese language has a long history.They have countless phrases, they are certainly, humor, genuine and rich. While phrases are a significant piece of any language, and figure of speech interpretation assumes a significant job in interpretation. Colloquialism is a discourse structure or an outflow of a given language that is exceptional to itself linguistically or can't be comprehended from the individual implications of its components. Figures of speech incorporate sayings, proverbs,slangs, etc. At the point when we make an interpretation of figures of speech from Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we should know the social contrasts among English and Chinese expressions, and we can locate the correct interpretation strategies. 2. the Cultural Differences among Chinese and English Idioms Figures of speech interpretation is an intercultural action, in this way, we should mull over social contrasts when we decipher them. What's more, the social contrasts among English and Chinese expressions can be ordered into four sorts. 2.1. From day to day environments The regular habitat is the premise of human living and improvement. China is a nation with mainland atmosphere, Chinese individuals live in the landmass of Asia. Since antiquated occasions, China is a huge agrarian nation, the land is imperative to people groups life. In this way, there are numerous figures of speech identified with wind, farming and land-related. For example, æâ€" ©Ã¨ â€°Ã©â„¢ ¤Ã¦ ¹ ( stamp out the foundation of difficulty ), é £Å¾Ã¨ °Æ'é› ¨Ã© ¡ º ( opportune climate for crop raising ), æÅ" ¥Ã¥Å"ÿå ¦â€šÃ©â€¡'( go through cash like water ) ä ¸â€¡Ã¤ ºâ€¹Ã¤ ¿ ±Ã¥ ¤â€¡Ã¥  ªÃ¦ ¬ ä ¸Å"é £Å¾ ( Everything is prepared aside from the east wind ), ä ¸Å"é £Å¾Ã¦Å¡ ¥Ã¦Ëœ ¥( )Chinese individuals can comprehend its importance, for British individuals it is troublesome. Since in Chinese east wind represents spring and warmth , and The United Kingdom is situated in the western side of the equator north calm zone, with marine atmosphere. In England, east wind originate s from the northern piece of the European landmass, and it represents crisp and horrendous ,while west wind represents spring in England, so they can not comprehend the genuine importance of Chinese colloquialism. In English there are numerous phrases identified with water, fish, pontoon, etc, for example, as frail as water (Ã¥ ¼ ±Ã¤ ¸ Ã§ ¦ Ã© £Å¾), in profound water (é™ ·Ã¥â€¦ ¥Ã¤ ¸ ¥Ã©â€¡ Ã¥â€º °Ã¥ ¢Æ') to keep ones head above water (Ã¥ ¥â€¹Ã¥Å¡â€ºÃ¥â€º ¾Ã¥ ¼ º), no big deal (æâ€" æ ³â€¢Ã¦Å" ½Ã¥â€ºÅ¾Ã§Å¡â€žÃ¨ ¿â€¡Ã¥Å¾ »)drink like a fish (è ± ªÃ© ¥ ®), to miss the vessel (é™å ¤ ±Ã¨â€° ¯Ã¦Å" º), all adrift (ä ¸ Ã§Ã¿ ¥Ã¦â€°â‚¬Ã¦Å¾ ª). 2.2. From customs There are numerous contrasts among English and Chinese traditions. In China, individuals think themselves are relative of the Dragon, the mythical beast is an image of propitious creatures. In this way, we have mythical serpent related maxims contain complimentary sense. For example, æÅ"݌ ­ Ã¦Ë† Ã© ¾â„¢(To anticipate that ones child should turn into an exceptional personage), é ¾â„¢Ã¥â€¡ ¤Ã¥'ˆç ¥ ¥(Harmony rules, etc. In western nations, they think monster is a fire-breathing creature and it is frightening. What's more, people groups mentality toward the canine is unique. In English-talking nations, individuals think the canine is a loyal creature to human, for example, Youre a fortunate dog(ä ½ æ˜ ¯Ã¤ ¸â‚¬Ã¤ ¸ ªÃ¥ ¹ ¸Ã¨ ¿ Ã¥â€ž ¿),Every hound has his day(å‡ ¡Ã¤ º ºÃ©Æ' ½Ã¦Å"‰å ¾â€"æ„ Ã¦â€" ¥).On the opposite, the pooch is a humble creature in China. For example, ç‹ ¼Ã¥ ¿Æ'ç‹â€"è‚ º ( severe and cutthroat ),ç‹â€"çÅ" ¼Ã§Å"‹ä º ºÃ¤ ½Å¾( the cursed self important ),ç‹â€"å˜'é‡Å"Ã¥  Ã¤ ¸ Ã¥â€¡ ºÃ¨ ± ¡Ã§â€°â„¢( a mutts mouth transmits no ivory ),and so forth. There is another model, in Chinese culture, bull is the image of constancy. From antiquated occasions, Chinese ranchers went in for cultivating with the assistance of bull. So Chinese give love and recognition to bull. At that point in Chinese we have åš›å ¤ §Ã¥ ¦â€šÃ§â€°â€º when it is converted into English, it ought to be as solid as a pony, Chinese individuals state Ã¥Æ' Ã§â€°â€ºÃ¤ ¸â‚¬Ã¦ ·Ã¥â€¹ ¤Ã¥Å¡ ³, in English, individuals state work like a pony . We utilize diverse creature to communicate a similar importance. In Chinese, there are a few figures of speech identified with eat , for instance Ã¥ Æ'ä ¸ Ã¤ ºâ€ Ã¥â€¦ Å"ç â‚¬Ã¨ µ °means wind up in genuine trouble,Ã¥ Æ'è ½ ¯Ã¤ ¸ Ã¥ Æ'ç ¡ ¬means can be convinced by reason yet not be cowed forcibly. A few maxims in view of their particular national highlights, can not found in English comparing articulation. 2.3. From religions conviction Strict conviction is a significant part in culture. Diverse strict convictions had various appearance in changed expressions. Chinese individuals have faith in Buddhism and Taoism, thusly there are numerous Chinese figures of speech are identified with Buddhism. For example, å€ÿèš ±Ã§Å" ®Ã¤ ½â€º( acquiring the chance ),æ™ ®Ã¥ º ¦Ã¤ ¼â€"çÿ( salvation of every single aware being ),Ã¥ ¹ ³Ã¦â€" ¶Ã¤ ¸ Ã§Æ' §Ã© ¦â„¢Ã¯ ¼Å"æ€ ¥Ã¦  ¥Ã¦Å¡ ±Ã¤ ½â€ºÃ¨â€žÅ¡( when the demon was debilitated, the fallen angel a priest would be ),é Ã© «ËœÃ¤ ¸â‚¬Ã¥ ° ºÃ¯ ¼Å"é ­Ã© «ËœÃ¤ ¸â‚¬Ã¤ ¸Ë†( While the cleric climb a post, the fiend climb ten )and so forth. While in English-talking nations, individuals have confidence in Christianity. So they have numerous figures of speech identified with Christianity. For example, flat broke (ä ¸â‚¬Ã¨' «Ã¥ ¦â€šÃ¦'â€" ) God help the individuals who help themselves (ä ¸Å¡Ã¥ ¸ Ã¥ ¸ ®Ã¥Å¡ ©Ã¨â€¡ ªÃ¥Å¡ ©Ã§Å¡â€žÃ¤ º º), God sends fortune to fools (å‚ »Ã¤ º ºÃ¦Å"‰å‚ »Ã§ ¦ ), Go to hellfire (ä ¸â€¹Ã¥Å" °Ã§â€¹ ±Ã¥Å¾ »), Gods factory goes gradually, however it crush well (Ã¥ ¤ ©Ã§ ½'æ  ¢Ã¦  ¢Ã§â€" Ã¨â‚¬Å"ä ¸ Ã¦ ¼ ), wash ones hands off (æ'â€" 手ä ¸ Ã¥ ¹ ²), the Day of Judgment (æÅ" «Ã¦â€" ¥Ã¥ ® ¡Ã¥Ë† ¤, etc. 2.4. From chronicled inferences A significant piece of chronicled culture is verifiable inference, and England and China have an enormous number of expressions started from authentic suggestion. These expressions are straightforward however broad, and we regularly can not be comprehended from the exacting importance. In Chinese we have Ã¥ ®Ë†Ã¦ ªÃ¥ ¾â€¦ å… ( sit tight for godsends ),ä º ¡Ã§ ¾Å¡Ã¨ ¡ ¥Ã§â€° ¢( preferred late over never ),æ‹è‹â€"åš ©Ã©â€¢ ¿( ruin things by inordinate excitement )ï ¼Å"èž ³Ã¨Å¾â€šÃ¦ â€¢Ã¨ â€°Ã¯ ¼Å"é »â€žÃ©â€ºâ‚¬Ã¥Å" ¨Ã¥ Å¾( Mantis get a cicada, siskin is hind.),å››é  ¢Ã¦ ¥Å¡Ã¦ ­Å"( be beat on all sides )and so on. Most English suggestive figures of speech originate from the Bible and Greek and Roman folklore. For example, Achilles heel (Ã¥ ¯Ã¤ ¸â‚¬Ã¨â€¡'Ã¥' ½Ã§Å¡â€žÃ¥ ¼ ±Ã§â€š ¹), Penelopes web (æ ° ¸Ã¨ ¿Å"Ã¥ ®Å"ä ¸ Ã¦Ë† Ã§Å¡â€žÃ¥ · ¥Ã¤ ½Å"), The Trojan Horse (æÅ" ¨Ã© © ¬Ã¨ ® ¡Ã¯ ¼â€ºÃ¦Å¡â€"èâ€" Ã§Å¡â€žÃ¥  ±Ã©â„¢ ©), Meet ones Waterloo (ä ¸â‚¬Ã¨' ¥Ã¦ ¶â€šÃ¥Å" °), last curtain call (ç » Ã¥ ±), bolt of Cupid (ä ¸ËœÃ¦ ¯Ã§â€° ¹Ã¤ ¹â€¹Ã§ ® ­), A Pandoras box (æ ½ËœÃ¥ ¤Å¡Ã¦â€¹â€°Ã¤ ¹â€¹Ã§â€º'ï ¼Å"Ã¥  ³Ã§  ¾Ã©Å¡ ¾Ã£â‚¬ Ã© º »Ã§Æ' ¦Ã£â‚¬ Ã§ ¥ ¸Ã¥ ® ³Ã§Å¡â€žÃ¦ ¹Ã¦ º ), The apple of conflict (ç ¥ ¸Ã¦â€š £Ã¯ ¼â€ºÃ¤ ºâ€°Ã§ « ¯)and so on. 3. Standard and strategies for colloquialism interpretation Figures of speech are typically short in structure however significant in sense. Every saying bears a picture and a metaphorical significance. Colloquialisms interpretation should be dependable. Reliable methods the Chinese variant must be dedicated to the English colloquialism at any rate in allegorical sense, and English expressions are not actually equivalent to the Chinese phrases in metaphorical sense however they give off an impression of being. For instance, pull ones leg isn't equivalent to 拉å Å¾Ã¨â€¦ ¿, move paradise and earth isn't equivalent to ç ¿ »Ã¥ ¤ ©Ã¨ ¦â€ Ã¥Å" ° and childs play isn't equivalent to å„ ¿Ã¦Ë† . So as to be dependable in interpretation ,we ought to pass on the first allegorical implications and penance the pictures. Consequently, pull ones leg can be rendered into Chinese as Ã¥ â€"ç ¬'æÿ Ã¤ º º, move paradise and earth can be rendered into Ã¥ ° ½Ã¥Å¡â€º and childs play can be rendered into Chinese as æ˜å ¦â€šÃ¥  Ã¦Å¾Å". Every on e of these interpretations are devoted to the first metaphorical implications. So every saying bears a picture and a metaphorical significance. An English colloquialism and a Chinese expression which are same in picture possibly extraordinary in non-literal importance. In the event that we can move both the picture and the non-literal significance by exacting interpretation, we should utilize strict interpretation. On the off chance that we can not, we should better keep the allegorical importance and penance the picture. At that point, we should utilize free interpretation. As a rule, the basic techniques for interpreting phrases are the accompanying sorts: 1. Strict interpretation 2. Free interpretation 3. Strict interpretation + Free interpretation 4. Adjusted interpretation 3.1. Strict interpretation A strict interpretation is an interpretation that follows intently the type of the source language. On the off chance that the picture and the allegorical significance are not conflicting to one another, at that point them two can be held in the interpretation, we should put forth attempts to decrease the misfortune in interpretation and utilize strict interpretation technique however much as could be expected. For example, time is cash is converted into æâ€" ¶Ã©â€"'Ã¥ ° ±Ã¦Ëœ ¯Ã©â€¡'é' ±, which protects its unique picture and metaphorical importance. There are numerous figures of speech of this sort: In English, 1) Forbidden natural product is sweet. ç ¦ 

Study On Currency Risks Handled By Indian Firm Finance Essay - Free Essay Example

The objective of this project is to examine how the impacts of currency exchange risks are dealt by the Indian Firms. Currency Exchange Risk in Global Market is a burning issue for any firm or corporate involved in business overseas. In this scenario, India is of course the one country where we have a lot of scope to focus on as far as the study of currency risk in business is concerned. If we see the world wide scenario, the financial sector is facing a lot of adjustment problems in the rapid changes in the economic financial environment. Now Indian financial system cannot be indifferent to this universal phenomenon. I would like to take the example of the Indian IT giants with special emphasis on TCS, in this exploratory paper to see how the currency swings affected the business of TCS in last couple of years and would try to provide some supportive data to show the same. It is very interesting to see how the companies like TCS uses different derivative instruments to keep the sustainability of its performance in the financial market by hedging the financial risks, specially related to the volatility of the money market and foreign currency exchange rates. How Companies use Derivatives for Hedging Risk Management Hedging Hedging, in simple words, says controlling or reducing risk. This controlling or reducing risk is done by taking a position in th e futures market that is opposite to the one in the physical market with an objective to reduce or limit risks associated with price changes. A simple example will help us understand it better. A wheat farmer can sell wheat futures to protect the value of his crop prior to harvest. If there is a fall in price, the loss in the cash market position will be countered by a gain in futures position. 2.2. Derivatives Derivatives are those financial instruments whose values depend on the value of not only the underlying financial instruments but on any underlying asset. We can take the same example of the wheat farmer. Here, the wheat farmer can protect itself of any fall in price by entering into a contract with the merchant. Some of the derivative instruments are: Futures, Swap, Options, and Forwards. To summarize, Hedging can be defined as a method where one can reduce the financial exposure faced in an underlying asset due to volatility in prices by taking an opposite position in the derivatives market in order to off-set the losses in the cash market by a corresponding gain in the derivatives market. This above definition captures the basic essence of derivatives hedging. Now having understood the basic meaning of hedging and derivatives, we would now see how corporate use these derivative instruments for hedging. 2.3. Foreign Exchange Risks The most common corporate uses of derivatives is for hedging foreign-currency risk, or foreign exchange risk, which is the risk that a change in currency exchange rates adversely impacts business results. Lets consider an example with Infosys Technologies, a multi-national IT company which even exports soft wares to other countries, and mainly to US. Lets make an assumption that Infosys Technologies exports software worth 1000 Crores to US in 2006-07 when the price of per US Dollar was at Rs. 40 (assumption). When the rupee per dollar exchange rate increases from Rs. 40, Rs. 42, Rs. 44, it takes more rupees to buy one dollar, meaning the rupee is depreciating or weakening. As the rupee depreciates, the softwares which Infosys exports would translate into greater sales in rupee terms. This demonstrates how a weakening rupee is not all that bad: it can boost export sales of Indian companies. Now lets illustrate a simple hedge that a company like Infosys Technologies might us e to minimize the effects of any Rupee / USD exchange rates, Infosys purchases 2000 foreign-exchange futures contracts against the Rupee / USD exchange rate. The value of the futures contracts will not, in practice, correspond exactly on a 1:1 basis with a change in the current exchange rate (that is, the futures rate wont change exactly with the spot rate), but we will assume that it does anyway. Each futures contract has a value equal to the gain above the Rs. 40 Rupee/USD rate. (Only because Infosys took this side of the futures position, somebody the counter-party will take the opposite position.) Of course, its not a free lunch: If the strategy of Infosys goes against it, that is, if the dollar were to weaken instead, then the increased export sales are mitigated (partially offset) by losses on the futures contract. 2.4. Hedging Interest Rate Risks Companies can hedge interest-rate risks in various ways. Consider a company that expects to sell a division in one year and at that time to receive a cash wind-fall that it wants to park in a good risk-free investment or a company had an unexpected profit, if the company strongly believes that interest rates will drop between now and then, it could purchase (or take a long position on) a treasury futures contract. The company is effectively locking in the future interest rate. Fair Value Hedges The Company [XYZ] had two interest rate swaps outstanding at January 1, 2008 designated as a hedge of the fair value of a portion of fixed-rate bonds. The change in fair value of the swaps exactly offsets the change in fair value of the hedged debt, with no net impact on earnings. XYZ Company uses an interest rate swap. Before it entered into the swap, it was paying a variable interest rate on some of its bonds. (For example, a common arrangement would be to pay LIBOR plus something a nd to reset the rate every six months.) Now lets look at the impact of the swap, the swap requires XYZ to pay a fixed rate of interest while receiving floating-rate payments. The received floating-rate payments are used to pay the pre-existing floating-rate debt. XYZ is then left only with the floating-rate debt, and has. Therefore, managed to convert a variable-rate obligation into a fixed-rate obligation with the addition of a derivative. Here we can call this as a perfect hedge: The variable-rate coupons that XYZ received compensates for the companys variable-rate obligation. 2.5. Commodity or Product Input Hedge Companies that depend heavily on raw-material inputs or commodities are sensitive, sometimes significantly, to the price change of the inputs. Airlines, for example, consume lots of jet fuel. Historically, most airlines have given a great deal of consideration to hedging against crude-oil price increases although they need to be very careful and a great forecasting before going for such a strategy because the strategy itself would cost them a lot. As we reviewed here three of the most popular types of corporate hedging with derivatives. There are many other derivative uses, and new types are being invented. The derivatives that are reviewed are not generally speculative for the company. They help protect the company from unanticipated events: adverse foreign-exchange or interest-rate movements, and unexpected increases in input costs. The investor on the other side of the derivative transaction is the speculator. However, in no case are these derivatives free. Even if, for exam ple, the company is surprised with a good-news event like a favorable interest-rate move, the company (because it had to pay for the derivatives) receives less on a net basis than it would have without the hedge. Warren Buffetts stand is famous: he has attacked all derivatives, saying he and his company view them as time bombs, both for the parties that deal in them and the economic system. Foreign Exchange Risk Management Firms dealing with multiple currencies face risk in terms of unanticipated gain/loss on account of sudden/unanticipated changes in exchange rates, quantified in terms of exposures. Exposure is defined as a contracted, projected or contingent cash flow whose magnitude is not certain at the moment and depends on the value of the foreign exchange rates. The process of identifying risks faced by the firm and implementing the process of protection from these risks by financial or operational hedging is defined as foreign exchange risk management. My paper limi ts its scope to hedging only the foreign exchange risks faced by firms like TCS. 3.1. Kinds of Foreign Exchange Exposure Risk management techniques vary with the type of exposure (accounting or economic) and term of exposure. Accounting exposure, also called translation exposure, results from the need to restate foreign subsidiaries financial statements into the parents reporting currency and is the sensitivity of net income to the variation in the exchange rate between a foreign subsidiary and its parent. Economic exposure is the extent to which a firms market value, in any particular currency, is sensitive to unexpected changes in foreign currency. Currency fluctuations affect the value of the firms operating cash flows, income statement, and competitive position, hence market share and stock price. Currency fluctuations also affect a firms balance sheet by changing the value of the firms assets and liabilities, accounts payable, accounts receivables, inventory, loans in foreign currency, investments (CDs) in foreign banks; this type of economic exposure is called balance sheet exposure. Transactio n Exposure is a form of short term economic exposure due to fixed price contracting in an atmosphere of exchange-rate volatility. The most common definition of the measure of exchange-rate exposure is the sensitivity of the value of the firm, proxied by the firms stock return, to an unanticipated change in an exchange rate. This is calculated by using the partial derivative function where the dependant variable is the firms value and the independent variable is the exchange rate (Adler and Dumas, 1984). 3.2. Necessity of managing foreign exchange risk A key assumption in the concept of foreign exchange risk is that exchange rate changes are not predictable and that this is determined by how efficient the markets for foreign exchange are. Research in the area of efficiency of foreign exchange markets has thus far been able to establish only a weak form of the efficient market hypothesis conclusively which implies that successive changes in exchange rates cannot be predicted by analyzing the historical sequence of exchange rates.(Soenen,1979). However, when the efficient market theory is applied to the foreign exchange market under floating exchange rates there is some evidence to suggest that the present prices properly reflect all available information (Giddy and Dufey, 1992). This implies that exchange rates react to new information in an immediate and unbiased fashion, so that no one party can make a profit by this information and in any case, information on direction of the rates arrives randomly so exchange rates also fluctu ate randomly. It implies that foreign exchange risk management cannot be done away with by employing resources to predict exchange rate changes. 3.3. Foreign Exchange Risk Management Framework Once a firm recognizes its exposure, it then has to deploy resources in managing it. A heuristic for firms to manage this risk effectively is presented below which can be modified to suit firm-specific needs i.e. some or all the following tools could be used. Forecasts: After determining its exposure, the first step for a firm is to develop a forecast on the market trends and what the main direction/trend is going to be on the foreign exchange rates. The period for forecasts is typically 6 months. It is important to base the forecasts on valid assumptions. Along with identifying trends, a probability should be estimated for the forecast coming true as well as how much the change would be. Risk Estimation: Based on the forecast, a measure of the Value at Risk (the actual profit or loss for a move in rates according to the forecast) and the probability of this risk should be ascertained. The risk that a transaction would fail due to market-specific problems4 should be taken int o account. Finally, the Systems Risk that can arise due to inadequacies such as reporting gaps and implementation gaps in the firms exposure management system should be estimated. Benchmarking: Given the exposures and the risk estimates, the firm has to set its limits for handling foreign exchange exposure. The firm also has to decide whether to manage its exposures on a cost centre or profit centre basis. A cost centre approach is a defensive one and the main aim is ensure that cash flows of a firm are not adversely affected beyond a point. A profit centre approach on the other hand is a more aggressive approach where the firm decides to generate a net profit on its exposure over time. Hedging: Based on the limits a firm set for itself to manage exposure, the firms then decides an appropriate hedging strategy. There are various financial instruments available for the firm to choose from: futures, forwards, options and swaps and issue of foreign debt. Hedging strategies and in struments are explored in a section. Stop Loss: The firms risk management decisions are based on forecasts which are but estimates of reasonably unpredictable trends. It is imperative to have stop loss arrangements in order to rescue the firm if the forecasts turn out wrong. For this, there should be certain monitoring systems in place to detect critical levels in the foreign exchange rates for appropriate measure to be taken. Reporting and Review: Risk management policies are typically subjected to review based on periodic reporting. The reports mainly include profit/ loss status on open contracts after marking to market, the actual exchange/ interest rate achieved on each exposure, and profitability vis-Ã  -vis the benchmark and the expected changes in overall exposure due to forecasted exchange/ interest rate movements. The review analyses whether the benchmarks set are valid and effective in controlling the exposures, what the market trends are and finally whether the ove rall strategy is working or needs change. Figure 1: Framework for Risk Management Effect of Currency swings in Indian market Cross-currency volatility is gnawing at the profit margins of almost every tech company. The movement of non-dollar currencies has undone the gains from rupees downward movement against the US dollar. When Indian IT companies were first exposed to the rupee-dollar volatility in 2007 (that time the Indian currency was strengthening against the greenback), they had hedged themselves against the dollar. However, while the rupee movement reversed again, IT companies and their CFOs were caught off guard as other currencies showed unexpected volatility for which they had very little hedges in place. As per the research and news: Indias total trade now accounts for over 40% of its GDP, and this highlights the increasing openness of the Indian economy and its reliance on foreign trade. However, as companies revenues increasingly come from cross-border trad e, they also become more vulnerable to fluctuations and swings in currency rates. There are many such examples amongst the Indian business. A midsize iron ore manufacturer and exporter suffered losses to the tune of $9.5 million due to adverse currency movements and losses of derivative transactions, which caused its profitability to slump to 4.5% as compared with 15% in the previous year. In another example, a mid-size auto component manufacturer suffered exchange losses of $1.2 million in the fiscal year ended March 31, 2009. This was because the company did not have a foreign exchange (forex) strategy in place to proactively counter this risk. It has now started hedging on selective basis by way of plain vanilla forwards as a corrective step. Looking at the cases like these, companies are now stepping up their cross-currency hedges. Example of TCS As per the annual report of TCS in the year 2007-2008, we get the following details, which reflect the derivative instr uments used by TCS to hedge the forex risk. Derivative financial instruments The Company, in accordance with its risk management policies and procedures, enters into foreign currency forward contracts and currency option contracts to manage its exposure in foreign exchange rates. The counter party is generally a bank. These contracts are for a period between one day and eight years. The Company has following outstanding derivative instruments as on March 31, 2008: The following are outstanding Foreign Exchange Forward contracts, which have been designated as Cash Flow Hedges, as on: Â Â March 31,2008 Â Â Â March 31,2007 Â Foreign Currency No. of Contracts Notional amount of forward contracts (million) Fair Value (Rs. In crores) Â No. of Contract Notional amount of forward contracts (million) Fair Value (Rs. In crores) Â Gain/(Loss) Â Gain/(Loss) U.S.Dollar 14 290 25.21 Â Sterling Pound 3 15 3.91 Â 5 21 0.32 Euro 3 19 11.78 Â Â Â 0.35 The following are outstanding Currency Option contracts, which have been designated as Cash Flow Hedges, as on: Â Â March 31,2008 Â Â Â March 31,2007 Â Foreign Currency No. of Contracts Notional amount of forward contracts (million) Fair Value (Rs. In crores) Â No. of Contract Notional amount of forward contracts (million) Fair Value (Rs. In crores) Â Gain/(Loss) Â Gain/(Loss) U.S.Dollar 67 3871.50 (88.70) Â 27 830.00 32.71 Sterling Pound 7 55.65 (2.23) Â 5 47.50 (1.93) Euro 12 99.25 (38.75) Â 11 76.50 (0.60) Net loss on derivative instruments of Rs.21.83 crores recognized in Hedging Reserve as of March 31, 2008, is expected to be reclassified to the profit and loss account by March 31, 2009 The movement in Hedging Reserve during year ended March 2008, for derivatives designated as Cash Flow Hedges is as follows: Particulars Year ended March 31, 2008 Year ended March 31, 2007 Â (Rs. In crores) (Rs. In crores) Balance at the beginning of the year 73.71 4.42 Gains / (losses) transferred to income statement on occurrence of forecasted hedge transaction 64.91 4.42 Changes in the fair value of effective portion of outstanding cash flow derivatives 174.78 29.64 Net derivative gain/(losses) related to a discontinued cash flow hedge 150.83 44.07 Balance at the end of the year 15.15 73.71 In addition to the above cash flow hedges, the Company has outstanding foreign exchange forward contracts and currency option contracts aggregating Rs. 2167.95 crores (previous year : Rs.2062.61 crores), whose fair value showed a loss of Rs.4.46 crores as on March 31, 2008 (previous year : gain of Rs 6.76 crores), to hedge the future cash flows. Although these contracts are effective as hedges from an economic perspective, they do not qualify for hedge accounting and accordingly these are accounted as derivatives instruments at fair value with changes in fair value recorded in the profit and loss account. Exchange gain of Rs.283.96 crores (previous year gain of Rs.45.13 crores) on foreign exchange forward contracts and currency option contracts have been recognized in the year ended March 31, 2008.

Most Abundant Element in the Universe, Earth, and Body

The most abundant element in the universe is hydrogen, which makes up about three-quarters of all matter! Helium makes up most of the remaining 25%. Oxygen is the third-most abundant element in the universe. All of the other elements are relatively rare. The chemical composition of Earth is quite a bit different from that of the universe. The most abundant element in the Earths crust is oxygen, making up 46.6% of Earths mass. Silicon is the second most abundant element (27.7%), followed by aluminum (8.1%), iron (5.0%), calcium (3.6%), sodium (2.8%), potassium (2.6%). and magnesium (2.1%). These eight elements account for approximately 98.5% of the total mass of the Earths crust. Of course, the Earths crust is only the outer portion of the Earth. Future research will tell us about the composition of the mantle and core. The most abundant element in the human body is oxygen, making up about 65% of the weight of each person. Carbon is the second-most abundant element, making up 18% of the body. Although you have more hydrogen atoms than any other type of element, the mass of a hydrogen atom is so much less than that of the other elements that its abundance comes in third at 10% by mass. Source​ Element Distribution in the Earths Crust

Mechanical Engineering Electrical Engineering - 1277 Words

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Debt Sustainability and Fiscal Councils

Questions: 1. Examine the factors that determine the dynamics of the debt-toGDP ratio.2. Define the deficit bias and provide three reasons for its existence. Answers: 1. The factors that determine the dynamics of the debt-toGDP ratio : Debt to GDP ratio is defined as the ratio of the countries national debt to its Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Debt is what a country owes and GDP is the total production of the country. By comparing both the ratio indicates the countrys ability to pay back its debt. Often expressed as a percentage, the ratio can be interpreted as the number of years needed to pay back debt if GDP is dedicated entirely on debt repayment. There has been no ideal level of debt-to-GDP ratio determined for a country, whereas there has been a focus on the certain debt levels. A country is referred to be stable if its debt payments are done without refinancing or harming the economic growth. A high Debt-to-GDP ratio may make more difficulty in paying its debts. If a county fails to pay its debt, it would default and would also create a panic in the national and international market. The higher the debt-to-GDP ratio, the higher the risk of fulfilling the payment and thus the higher default risk. (Julio, 2010 ) The factors which contribute to the determining of the dynamics of the government Debt-to-GDP ratio are Primary budget balance as a percentage of the countrys GDP, GDP growth and the difference between the real interest rate. The debt path is determined by the overall fiscal balances; interest bills and primary balances. Debt in terms of equations can be explained as : Bt = (1+r) Bt-1 + Gt - Tt [E1] This equation explains the debt which is, debt at the end of the year t is equal to (1+r) times debt at the end of the year t-1, plus the Primary deficit which is the difference between total deficits and interest payments. The factors that determine the dynamics are primary deficits (or surpluses) and the real rate of interests. The change in any would change the percentage of debt to GDP. Thus there can be two cases realized: 1. The normal case: when the growth rate of GDP is smaller than the real interest rates. Here, E1 is a straight line with slope greater than 1. If the initial debt is positive then the government needs primary surplus to stabilize the debt ratio. The real rate of interest is the rate at which the government accumulates debt because of the debt inherited from the past in terms of interest. If new debt is recalled to pay such interests rather than by primary surpluses, the debt to GDP ratio will continue to grow at a rate equal to rate of interest. Real GDP, however, grows at a rate g- less than r- therefore the debt ratio increases over time. This happens even when the government maintains a primary budget balance or runs primary deficits. 2. The exotic case: when the growth rate exceeds the real interest. E1 is then described by a straight line with lower slope than 1 (1+ r g 1). The debt to equity ratio with time converges to steady rate value indicated as b-. The debt ratio converges to zero as the primary budget is balanced and the debt ratio exceeds. The dynamics of debt to GDP ratio can be explained through these two graphical diagrams: 1. If g r, and if country has past deficits or runs primary deficits (Gt - Tt 0), then the debt ratio increases going further away from equilibrium. 2. If g r and the government runs primary surpluses (Gt - Tt 0), then the debt ratio always converges to its equilibrium level. Causes of Debt accumulation: There has been a increase in debt of the government of many countries past few decades. The major causes of debt accumulation can be seen as the governments cut in taxation. But debt also has its determinants from the GDP growth rate and the inflation levels of the country. Countries reach debt tolerance limits as sharp increase in price levels and interest rates devalue the growth and in turn the money supply in the market. As for inflation levels, an obvious connection comes from the fact that high inflation can reduce the real cost of servicing the debt. Also, understanding how the debt builds up is also important. Natural disasters, wars and peace time also help in the debt accumulation for the path to recovery to happen. For developed economies the relation of inflation and growth does not much matter to the debt amount while for emerging economies they have a direct relation and affects the debt accumulation. Also emerging economies depend upon developed economies for borrowing s which ads up to the debt amount. The aftermath of the financial crisis of 2007-2009 also showed that debt accumulation in the countries was majorly because of the dependant on short term borrowings to fund the past growing debts.(Reihart, 2010) Danger of very high public debt and the options open to a government to stabilize a high and growing debt ratio. It is experienced that higher the public debt, higher the primary surplus to keep the debt levels from growing any further. But with the primary surpluses comes the taxes which if increased can create havoc in the economy. The degree to which high public debt can be danger to the economy can be explained with the help of the E1, the debt-GDP ratio: Lets say, a country having a high debt ratio of 100%. Suppose real rate of interest is 3% and GDP growth rate is 2%. Then first term on the right hand side is (3%-2%) X 100% = 1% of GDP. Now this can fluctuate as per the situation of the country. For example, Government generates a primary surplus of 1% then the right hand side will be equal to 1% + (-1%) = 0 , or because of any scandal or disinvestment in the country the central banker raises the interest rates from 3% to 7% then again the right side changes. To maintain this primary surpluses needs to be raised and to increase them will increase the tax rate. Alternatively the government may not be able to increase the primary surpluses then again the debt will rise and financial markets may fall which will bring in negative sentiments to the investors and further no investments would be attracted. The end lesson to this will be that the countries facing high debt should reduce it as soon as they can. 2) Policy: the rapid increase in government debt in most OECD economies in the 1990s lead economists to argue that fiscal policy was subject to a deficit bias and that discretionary policy had to be abandoned in favour of fiscal rules. However, the recent explosion in government debt suggests that the rules approach was not sufficient for stable public finances and the need to search for new ways of ensuring fiscal discipline. An idea that has received widespread attention is the establishment of independent fiscal institutions. What is Deficit bias? The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Nations was founded in 1961 for the development of world trade and push towards the economic growth of the member nations. It is a forum of countries coming together for democracy and market economy and sharing policies, problems and coordinating for a better world economy. Since the 1990s there has been a rapid increase in government debts in most of its members and to overcome the same fiscal policies were subjected to the deficit bias and all the rules were made in favor of the same. Fiscal policy is a government tool for planning its expenditure on taxes and revenues through borrowings. The deficit bias comes in this planning stage itself. It can be defined as a situation when the structure of a governments budget is such that its promised disbursements exceed the structures of its receipts. The reasons for deficit bias can be explained as below: Insufficient collection of taxes- this is a very common problem for many countries. Due to the dynamic income distribution and generation of income in the economy, the tax slabs vary and collection is also distributed. The collection of taxes is also dynamic making only few people of the population to pay the taxes. Also countries have very high marginal rates of taxes. People either work less and pay more or they work where tax evasions are possible. Obligations towards the welfare and upliftment of the society and equality in distribution of the wealth. The people expect social and security benefits from the government which in return are expensive and obliging them requires a huge sum of money to be invested which can be either through government reserves or majorly through borrowings thus creating deficits further. Discuss how fiscal councils can contribute to fiscal discipline by reducing the problem of deficit bias. Fiscal policy is a mainstream tool used by the government officials for the planning and estimating the expenditure and revenues of the government. These policies are used by all the countries to stabilise the government action and forecasting future requirements. Fiscal councils can be said to be independent bodies set up by a government to evaluate fiscal policy (Wren-Lewis, 2011). Fiscal discipline can be defined as the governments capacity to keep the smooth flow of financial operations and long term fiscal development. After the financial crisis of 2008 many countries formed its fiscal councils one such being the Swedish forum for crisis preparedness. There has been a rapid increase in the deficit bias in countries and major reasons cited were as these countries did not follow the fiscal discipline and after a while there were no contingencies in the improve the situations. These fiscal problems have led to the establishment of fiscal institutions. These have also been approved by world development institutions like the IMF, World Bank, OECD etc. The recent interest in these establishments was widely supported by academic proposals. The common objective of these councils is to adapt the systemised working of the central banking to the fiscal sphere. The working of these fiscal councils are to be determined as whether they should do forecasting or evaluating the governments forecasts or they should give normative recommendations. Since a long time fiscal rules have been violated by the governments and thus the councils have come up with fiscal disciplines. There are several ways in which the fiscal councils can deal with the deficit bias by contributing to fiscal disciplines, few are: Informational problems- there have been many instances when there has been wrong inflow of information among the people in the country resulting into a fall in the severe indicators of economic growth. For example, over optimism among the people either by any leader or any people can create deficit bias because revenues can be below expectations over expectations may lead to regrets in future. To make such information flows correct and clear, councils need to step in and play a better role for the profitability of such information. Impatience- this can also create deficit bias among the people. An example would be when a government is discounting at a higher rate than the electorate it is giving a deficit bias as this would lead to the loss of individual politicians in elections. Here the election commission may not be able to cater to the flaw effectively as the magnitude of the election may be very large, thus fiscal councils could provide an alternative political pressure and manage the situation. Common-pool theory- a governments duty is to provide welfare to the people and thus they come up with ideas to benefit them. But sometimes there stays a flaw in this process. Ministers may formulate overflowing budgets and thus fail to provide optimum results out of it. This theory provides a relationship between the departments of government and the deficit bias created. Here the recommendations of the fiscal councils may empower the financial ministers and help in the optimum utilisation of the money of the people. Time inconsistency and inflation bias- the deficit bias is also related to the inflation bias. The fiscal policies are used to stabilise the economy by raising the output and inflation in the short run. Sometimes this leads to deficit bias with the inflation bias. The changes in the institutions that reduce the inflation bias through the monetary policy might encourage the inflation through fiscal policies with an associated deficit bias. Thus the fiscal councils can act as a guard for changes in such rules and advise on the long term benefits of the economy. Exploiting future generations- there has been experiences when the government has failed to succeed in the security and development of the future generations of the country. The exploitation of the next generations can be directly by cutting taxes immediately and be paid by the future generation later or indirectly by adding government debts and capital. Here the fiscal councils may be represented by the future generations themselves. But again, these young councils should also have the fiscal powers and decision making strengths.(Wren-Lewis, 2011) Discuss why there exists the potential for the UK government to exert some indirect influence on the OBRs forecasts and to undermine its independence. Office for budget responsibility is a fiscal forum established for the fiscal cooperation and management of the UK government. As discussed it is difficult for a government to establish a fiscal council as it would provide hindrances in its activities. Thus it has been noted that governments exert influences on the councils in there country. The UK government too tries to influence the forecasts of OBRs. This is because of the issue that independence simply moves time inconsistency problem to another level. The councils advises may bring in hindrances and problems in the government activities. Sometimes fiscal councils are created by opposition parties for the critique to the government. Conflicts between the government and the fiscal councils are not inevitable. The fiscal council has the power to validate optimal departure from simple rules. Thus the UK government has been creating unduly interferences in its fiscal council. (McCullum, 1994) Independence of the fiscal councils have always been undermined. Though there is a consensus of academic professionals on the need for the independence of these councils. This independence can be achieved through the following ways- Budgetary independence. Recruitment process to be completely professional and no political preferences accepted. Restriction on the electorals freedom to fire then members of the councils. Reduction in the periods of undertaking the charge in the office. Strict prohibitions on the interference of the government advise on the functioning of the body. Bibliography calmfors. (2003). Fiscal policy to stabilize the domestic economy in EMU. In calmfors, Fiscal policy to stabilize the domestic economy in EMU (p. 49). CESifo Economic Studies. Julio, E. (2010). A Practical Guide to Public Debt Dynamics. Retrieved january 24, 2015, from https://www.esaag.co.za/images/publications-notes/other/imf-guide-to-public-debt- McCullum. (1994). Two fallacies concerning central banks independence. American Economic review. Reihart, M. (2010). Growth in the time of debt. In M. Reihart. American Economic Review. Wren-Lewis, L. C. (2011). What should fiscal councils do. In L. C. Wren-Lewis, What should fiscal councils do (pp. 649-695).