Death Knocks Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Death Knocks - Essay Example He has used puns and pratfalls heavily and carefully to channel succinctly a light and comical delineation of death. Putting it differently, he has successfully managed to manipulate death, such a serious issue into a funny and laughable matter. The play begins with a vivid description of Nat Ackerman’s house (Myers, 4). He stays in a two-storey building in Kew curtilage. The wall is covered completely with carpet. Inside the bedroom, there is a large divalent bed and a large dresser. The living room is richly furnished and colorful curtains all over. There are a number of pictures smartly arranged on the wall and an ugly likeable barometer. Just as the curtains are opened, soft music emerges from the background. It is at this time that Nat, who is a fifty-seven-years- old dressmaker with a baldhead is seen comfortably lying on bed reading a newspaper. At close to midnight, Nat hears a noise that startles him prompting him to stand by the window to lock at what is happening. Woody Allen portrays death as a funny and humorous character. In the way death acts out, he is seen as very friendly contrary to the real life situation. Both Nat and Death are equally humorous, when Nat confirms that he was not expecting Death, Death replies in a joking way by asking Nat if he was expecting Rock Hudson. Furthermore, in this play, Death does not have the full capacity and aggressiveness in executing his task. He willingly joins Nat in playing gin rummy game. There is an agreement that if Nat emerges the winner in the game, Death spares his life for extra 24 hours. On the other hand, if Nat loses the game, Death leaves with him instantly. Allen depicts Death as unthreatening and conversant by impersonating him as an ethnical image. That Nat can talk to Death, changes everything modifying death as approachable and less awful. When Nat borrows the idea

Repositioning Target Market Demographics Using U.S. Census Data Essay

Repositioning Target Market Demographics Using U.S. Census Data - Essay Example It can be stated that the target customers for compact cassettes could be the students as well as the young people who possesses the fascination in listening music. According to the Census Data of the United States, it has been apparently observed that the nation has the highest amount of listeners. On the basis of this significant data, it can be affirmed from a broader perspective that the repositioning of the product especially targeting the listeners like the youths as well as the students along with others fond of listening music would be beneficial. Relating to the aspect of repositioning, certain key dimensions are needed to be implemented that includes understanding company’s’ effort for doing well, discovering the needs of the customers and exploiting organizational strengths for meeting the demands of the customers. Another key dimension can be identified as culture building for focusing on customers as well as market intelligence (Trout, & Rivkin, 2009). From the above observation it can be stated that in order to enter into new market segment, it is required to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the organizations. It can be observed that compact cassettes requires mass reproducing aspects, phonography records as well as prerecording for attracting customers in the global markets. According to the census data belonging to the US, it can be stated that the target market for the product concerning compact cassettes would be the rural areas of the nations wherein the students and the youths among others resides substantially. It has been apparently observed that the population in the rural areas of the US has been estimated to be nearly about 18% and with targeting this particular market, it would be possible to elevate technological advancements particularly in those areas. In accordance with the reports that published by the US Census Data, it can be observed that the value of shipments and annual payrolls is much higher in the US business markets as compared to others in the global context. The products like compact cassettes entering into the target market i.e. the US would have ample scope of generating greater revenues by delivering quality products to the customers (United States Census Bureau, 2011). 2. Type of Research Required for Repositioning Compact Cassettes The marketing research for products of compact cassettes can be identified as current marketing and promotion plan along with distribution of compensation, current customers profile and competitive products review (McGrath Marketing, n.d). In this similar concern, it can be stated that the types of research required for repositioning the product of compact cassettes in the new target market of the US can be identified as conduction of interview with practitioners, assessing the competition in the target market and developing a detailed understanding of the attributes of products. Furthermore, the other sort of research encompassing conduction of primary along with secondary data is also required for establishing a product such as compact cassettes in the target market of the US. It is quite significant that the identification of competitors within the market segment is quite indispensable for repositioning a product in target market. It can also be stated that the conduction of qualitative research is also required

Minicase Raines and Warren Finance Essay Example for Free

Minicase Raines and Warren Finance Essay The disadvantage of using company collateral to back the bonds is, the asset used as collateral cannot be sold during the term of the bond and must maintain its value. 2. Seniority of the bond. The seniority of the bond is the order in which bonds will be paid in the event of bankruptcy. The more senior the bond, the higher priority of being paid if there is a bankruptcy, and the lower the coupon rate because the risk to the bond owner is lower. 3. The presence of a sinking fund. A sinking fund is an account set up by the trustee of the bonds. The trustee saves and pools money to purchase, pay off, or call bonds early. Setting up a sinking fund will lower the risk, thus lowering the coupon rate. The risk to the company is not having available funds to feed the trust. 4. A call provision with specified call dates and call prices. A call provision could be included to call the bonds if interest rates drop substantially. The call provision will raises the coupon rate but protect you from paying a high rate for a long period in the event rates drop. 5. A deferred call accompanying the call provision. A deferred call accompanying the call provision would give the bond purchaser a protection period where the bond could not be called. Adding this provision will prohibit you from calling the bond for a set time (call period), and puts you at risk of paying a high interest rate for the deferred period. Therefore, you have a lower coupon rate than a call provision with no deferral period but still higher than a bond with no call provision at all. 6. A make-whole call provision. A make-whole call provision is the safest call for the investor and a lower coupon rate for you. The discount rate is based on the current Treasury rate plus a small-specified percentage. The investor is protected by being made whole if there is a call. 7. Any positive covenants for purchaser and some SS might consider. Positive covenants on bonds are proactive and reduce the coupon rate. Applying positive covenants to the bond makes it more attractive and secure to the investor by applying conditions that protect the investor’s interest. You may wish to consider a covenant to furnish your audited financial statements to the investors. This is something you already do and it would decrease the coupon rate. If you choose to secure with assets (see number 1), including a covenant to assure that the asset is in good working condition would lower the coupon rate. 8. Any negative covenants for purchaser and some SS might consider. Negative covenants on bonds are restrictive and reduce the coupon rate. Applying negative covenants to the bond makes it more attractive to the investor but may hinder the operation by putting limitations on your business actions. You may want to consider a clause that you will not merge with another firm and that you will not issue any additional long-term debt. 9. A conversion feature. A conversion feature allows a bond to convert to stock and unless your company is planning to go public, this would not apply to you. If SS has any plans to go public, you should consider a conversion feature. This feature would benefit the bondholders if the company did go public and if included could lower the coupon rate. 10. A floating-rate coupon. A floating-rate coupon is much like an adjustable rate loan. The coupon rate, tied to a published rate such as the Treasury bill interest rate over a set period, is adjusted per a set schedule such as every six months. There is a disadvantage of doing this when rates are low but will be more attractive to the investor, thus a lower margin. A cap on how much the rate can be increased or decreased would be a good addition if you choose this option. This would be a consideration if you choose not to have a call provision.

Design Of A Pipe Climbing Robot Engineering Essay

Design Of A Pipe Climbing Robot Engineering Essay This technical paper explains the design process and simulation of a concept vehicle to drive inside a circular pipe of the desired configuration as shown in figure 1. The design is developed to facilitate; pipe climbing and carry an inspection of an inspection panel. This vehicle when operated will travel in a horizontal section of pipe initially, before entering the inclined part of the circular pipe. It then drives within 0.2m of the inspection panel and starts inspecting it with the help of an on-board camera. Specific equations and assumptions are used to monitor vehicle motion and system controllers are designed to enforce there is enough traction applied by the vehicle to grip the pipe and move forward. Figure 1 Pipe inspection Scenario Index Terms-design, linear actuators, multi-wheel drive, proximity sensor, robots Introduction Inspection and maintenance are essential in all industries. Failure to conduct proper maintenance could result in potential danger to workers and machines. Carrying out these inspections impose rigours hurdles in case of various industries where the conditions are unsafe for human workers, for example, inspection and maintenance in a nuclear industry, where the environment poses serious risk for the humans. The most common way for conducting these inspections in hazardous conditions is to use long manipulators which could be expensive. The alternate way of carrying these inspections is by using walking/climbing robots. Pipe climbing robots are advanced robots, which have the potential to climb inside/outside of a pipe to perform specific functions, where a normal operator cannot be used. The improvements in this sector have grown rapidly, since its a cheap and effective way for investigating various properties inside a pipe. An assignment has been assigned to design a concept vehicle to drive inside a circular pipe as in fig 1. This vehicle needs to enter the tunnel and drive to within 0.2m of the inspection panel and inspect the panel at the end of pipe. The vehicle must also carry a wire which is tethered. The climbing robots can be classified into four major categories based on their approach to climbing: adhesive, brute force fixture, spines and grasp. The robots with adhesive approach use a mechanism such as suction or an electromagnetic fixture on the climbing surfaces. The brute force robots use a mechanism to grab on to the structure and move forward. The spine group of robots use spines/multi-spines to attach themselves to the climbing surface so as to propel forwards. The last group of grasp robots use their own dynamic and kinematic state to grasp on to the engineering structure and moves forward. The present conceptual design can be categorised under grasping group of climbing robots. These robots consist of mainly two mechanisms, one to power the robot to move and the other to grip the surface of the structure. The mechanisms used to grip on to the surface can be facilitated by the usage of spring and v-shaped arm or longitudinal actuators. A v-shaped arm along with a compression spring is connected to the body of the robot. The compression springs tends to expand the arms, if the outer arm reaches the surface, it exerts a force normal to the contact of surface thus proving the traction for gripping the surface. In case of linear actuators various mechanisms are used to produce the linear motion of the arms to exert force onto the surface. The present design employs a linear actuator. It has longitudinal arms connected to linear actuators. The linear actuator is a simple rack-pinion mechanism, but consists of three racks to synchronise the outward motion equally in all three directions, thus providing an equal amount of force on each surface of the structure. A multi-wheel drive system is employed for the present case, as there is a need for requirement for more torque when the robot climbs the inclination part and to reduce the slip generated by the wheel. In the present case, the robot has five wheels and hence five individual motors, two on the bottom of the base, one on either side of robot and one at the top of the robot. When in operation the outer end of the wheels on all directions would be perfectly inscribed in a circle of 200cm when looked at front view. This mechanism coupled with linear actuators makes sure that at any instant all the wheels are in contact with the surface of the pipe thus providing maximum available traction for the robot. Robot model and modelling assumptions In the present concept of design the circular pipe is considered to be even and has a constant coefficient of friction throughout. Designing the robot requires a methodological approach to implement a professional structured robot is done by generating a CAD model of the robot. The components of the robot are selected with maximum care with feasible materials, since theoretical tests and scenarios can be modelled based on weight and dimension of the robot. After selection of optimum materials for robot, the design process is finished. The weight of the vehicle including the power source (batteries), on-board camera and computer controller along with other drive motors and actuators will approximately be around 1.8 kg. The dimensions of the robot while in operation are 0.275m in length, 0.2m in both width and height. The front part of the robot is designed in such a way that it gets inscribed in a circle perfectly during motion. To maintain perfect contact at all time the wheel positioning is very critical. Both the bottom wheels are place below the base of the robot to facilitate more space for other components such as power source, camera, controllers, sensors etc. The remaining three wheels are positioned perpendicular to each other on the actuator arm. The length of this arm can be varied using the linear actuator mechanism. In the present case this linear actuator mechanism is a simple rack-pinion mechanism. All the three arms are synchronised such that under operation the displacement of arms is equal in all directions. Four proximity sensors are used to calculate the distance between the surface of pipe and surface of the tyre. Three sensors are linked to one at each actuating arm in their respective direction. One sensor is linked to calculate the distance from surface of front tyre to the surface of the inspection panel. The three sensors on actuator arm are categorised into a single sensor unit (say sensor unit 1), while the other sensor (say sensor unit 2) is categorised separately. The categorised bill of the materials used is as follows Working of the robot Initially when the robot is at rest, all the three linear actuating arms are in contracted position. When the system of the robot is started, the sensor unit 1 present on the linear actuator arms calculates the distance between wheel and surface of pipe and sends the feedback to the on-board CPU. The CPU then sends a signal to increment the step motor to one step. This whole process of increment of steps continues until the wheel touches the surface of pipe and thus exerts a small normal force to grip onto that surface. Once this process is completed, drive motors of the robot are actuated. These motors are controlled by on-board CPU with the help of feedback from the sensor unit 2. All the five motors through a gear box connected to the wheels are powered with equal force, hence powering robot equally in all directions and sensor unit 1 ensures theres maximum grip available at the end of the actuating arms. The power to the motor is stopped once the sensor unit 2 senses the distance between the front wheels and the inspection panel is 0.2m, thus activating the camera to carry the inspection process. This whole process can be controlled using a manual operation panel or fully autonomous programmed GUI on-board. Simulation of vehicle dynamics The vehicle dynamics of the robot are established using specific equations for motion. This analysis is used to determine the performance capacity and capability of the robot. It also helps to calculate the velocity, force dynamics at any instance of time. Before using the equations a few assumptions are considered. The drag forces exerted on the body and wire are neglected. The drive force from the wheels is considered to be a constant ideal force, where wheel slip and wheel tyre deflection are neglected. The gravitational constant and the friction coefficient considered to remain constant throughout the process. The simulation emphasises more on the vehicle motion along the entire length of pipe including the inclined part of pipe. The terminology used for the following calculaitons are as follows Parameter Description Value mb Mass of robot 1.8 kg r Radius of the wheel 0.03m mw| mass of wire per unit length 0.2 kg/m Ub Coefficient of friction of body 0.5 Uw Coeffient of friction of wire 0.2 G Gravitational constant 9.81 m/s2 Ts Stall torque of motor 0.9 kg-m Wn No load speed of motor 38 rpm O Angle of inclination of pipe 40o Straight path A constant force is produced through five drive motors and is calculated as follows, where Fm is the force exerted by the motor, But the torque generated by the motor changes with velocity of the body. Torque at any time is given as Where w is rotational speed at that instant of time. W can be written in terms of velocity v of the body Since there are five motors present to power the robot, the net force exeterd by motors at any time is The frictional force (Ffb) acting on the body due to its own weight Frictional force (Ffw) due to mass of wire Where mw is mass of wire carried at that time and is calculated by using length l of distance travelled by the robot The resultant force(F) resulting in forward motion of the robot Acceleration(a) of the body is given by Velocity vf of the body is given by Displacement lf of the body is given by à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€ š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Inclined path Consider the instance at which the robot just reaches the inclined path of the pipe. The force exerted by the motor remains constant as in eq(). When the robot is in inclined position weight gradient of body(Fgb) and weight gradient of wire (Fgw)opposes the motion of body. These are given as The frictional forces acting opposite to motion also changes as follows Where l is the total displacement along the pipe The net force (Fi) acting on the body along the pipe is Acceleration of the body along the pipe Velocity (vi) of the robot at any instance is given by Where vf is the velocity of the robot at the start of the inclination. Abstract-These instructions are a guide to the assignments to be submitted for Mech5090 Mechatronics and Robotics Applications [this section should contain a brief description of the task and outcomes] The assignment must not exceed 6 sides of A4!!!! Index Terms-About four key words or phrases in alphabetical order, separated by commas. INTRODUCTION THIS document is a template for Microsoft Word versions 6.0 or later. Do not change the font sizes or line spacing to squeeze more text into a limited number of pages. Use italics for emphasis; do not underline. To insert images in Word, position the cursor at the insertion point and either use Insert | Picture | From File or copy the image to the Windows clipboard and then Edit | Paste Special | Picture (with float over text unchecked). This section should contain a description of the problem and a critical discussion of the references used for the work. System designà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Mechanical considerationsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. eg This section should contain the description of the system you propose including any specific hardware you are proposing to use. You can be flexible how you use headings and divide the work up. References Number citations consecutively in square brackets [1]. The sentence punctuation follows the brackets [2]. Multiple references [2], [3] are each numbered with separate brackets [1]-[3]. When citing a section in a book, please give the relevant page numbers [2]. In sentences, refer simply to the reference number, as in [3]. Do not use Ref. [3] or reference [3] except at the beginning of a sentence: Figures The assignment should contain technical/non-technical illustrations of important aspects of the work. Graphs The assignment may contain graphs produced by a software package such as Matlab. They should have the correct axis/units. They must have a figure caption and be referenced in the text. Tables of information are also fine with the rules above adhered to. Equations Number equations consecutively with equation numbers in parentheses flush with the right margin, as in (1). First use the equation editor to create the equation. Then select the Equation markup style. Press the tab key and write the equation number in parentheses. To make your equations more compact, you may use the solidus ( / ), the exp function, or appropriate exponents. Use parentheses to avoid ambiguities in denominators. Punctuate equations when they are part of a sentence, as in (1) Conclusion A conclusion section is required. Although a conclusion may review the main points of the paper, do not replicate the abstract as the conclusion. A conclusion might elaborate on the importance of the work or suggest applications and extensions.

Dr. Faust, Scientist :: essays research papers

The Webster’s New Collegiate defines a scientist as: One learned in science or Natural science; also know as a scientific investigator. The Dr. Faust described in Marlow’s Faust defiantly fits all of these criteria. He was very learned (or so he thought) in all the different sciences. In here lies his problem, Faust said that he is boarded or sees no reason for analysis, physics, law and divinity (lines 5-60). It is possible that Faust could be looking for a new more interesting science. Therefore because he is constantly searching for more knowledge, under these guidelines, he is defiantly a scientist. It is important to note that unlike most scientists, Faust is not searching for knowledge just to better himself. He is only interested in more knowledge because it produces more power; and power is Faust’s main goal.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  More evidence that Dr. Faust is a scientist lies with in Act 2. This is the act where Faust finally sells his soul and the second thing he asks for are the tools of scientist, books. The first book he wants is a book that â€Å"behold(s) all spells and incantations†(lines 161). He asks for this one first because it beholds more power for him while the books he asks for after this are more for the learned aspect of Faust personality. These other books he now wants that allow him to â€Å" see all the characters and planets of the heaven† and â€Å"(to) see all plants, herbs and trees that grow upon the earth† (lines 165 and168). These last two books provide no direct means for power, unlike the first book of spells. The fact that he does ask for these last two purely intellectual books provide more proof that he is indeed a scientist.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dr. Faust would of found himself at home in the Royal Society for the improving Natural Knowledge. This is true for two reasons: first because he was very interested learning about new sciences, even if he did it for his own needs. He repeats his constant search for more information when he questions the seven deadly sins (lines 105-163). Here he continues to feed his scientific appetites by cross-examine and classifying the sins. Secondly, Faust would be part of this society because like the rest of the society he believed that science and religion is intertwined. Proof that he believes this lies in the fact that he uses religious applications to increase his knowledge.

Vehicle Drive Train Systems Essay -- physics car automobile vehicle

Before the advent of the automobile, buggies were typically propelled by one or more horses. Even with the first automobiles there was a need for a drive system, though, since those horses were no longer there. One thing that has remained common to every car is a motor and transmission system of some sort, but what varies greatly between cars is what is between the transmission and the wheels, also known as the drive train. There are many different styles of drive trains, each with their own advantages and disadvantages. Front Wheel Drive The most common style of drive train is that of the front wheel drive, abbreviated FWD. Front wheel drive was not, however, the first drive system. Front wheel drive first made its appearance in the automobile market in 1933 with the French Traction Avant, which literally means "pull from the front." At the time, the idea of having a car pulled by the front wheels was rather different, but this style of getting the power to the wheels worked rather well. What made the Traction Avant successful was that it was lighter and more fuel efficient than other car models made at the time. This increased efficiency was a result of not only eliminated weight, but also reduced power loss in moving the rotational energy to the back. The idea of front wheel driven cars was not embraced immediately by major car manufacturers, though, since having all the driving mechanisms placed right under or in front of the engine added complexity in production and maintenance that was not worth the extra gas mileage. It was when the gasoline shortage hit America in the early 1980s that the front wheel drive car first became popular. Chevrolet first implemented the system in its "Citation," in 1979, which became an... ...front and rear differentials. Taking this into consideration, all wheel drive systems are almost always on full time. In order for all wheel drive to work, a specialized computer and a matching set of sensors is needed to tell which wheels are spinning and to which wheels the power should be transferred to. The change is done through a series of automatic wheel braking, adding another complicated and costly mechanism to the brakes system. For this reason all wheel drive systems were usually only used in vehicles like Mercedes and Porches. Lately, though, due to the advances in manufacturing technology, there have been a few domestic vehicles released, like the newer Ford Explorers and the Saab 9-2X, both of which feature all wheel drive. Should the cost of production of all wheel drive systems continue to decrease, more domestic vehicles will feature it in the future.

Altruism & prosocial behaviour Essay

Altruism, a form of prosocial behaviour had been one of many enduring questions social psychologists have investigated. Psychologists have attempted to explain altruism in terms of a person’s willingness to help at a cost. It has been defined by Walster and Piliavin (1972) as ‘ helping behaviour that is voluntary, costly to the altruist and motivated by something other than the expectation of material and social reward. This essay will look at research surrounding or reasons for altruistic behaviour. Much debate surrounds this topic as it s often unclear whether behaviour is truly altruistic or egoistic (seeking personal reward). Cardwell 1966 suggested that the primary motivation for helping someone is seen as a desire to improve the welfare of another person rather than the anticipation of some reward. One explanation of altruistic behaviour was attempted by Weiner 1986 who analysed the cause in terms of attribution of responsibility. These attributions create emotional responses, which motivates action or inaction. Attribution to uncontrollable causes such as illness or disability tends to produce sympathy, which results in helping. Attribution to controllable causes such as drunkenness produces anger, which inhibits helping behaviour. This was demonstrated in Piliavin study of ‘subway Samaritan 1969’. Weiner theory is one of many that tried to explain altruism. Batson empathy altruism hypothesis explains altruistic behaviour in terms of empathy. Witnessing another person in distress creates empathic concern, which motivates helpers to try to relieve their persons distress. Again the reason for helping could be egoistic ‘I should help him to make me feel better’ or altruistic ‘I have got to help him so that he feels better’. In Batson et al’s study of the empathic condition 1981, he found that the female students in the high empathy condition were much more likely to help the confederate even when they are in a position to escape from this responsibility. As shown by Batson and his colleagues people help for reasons other than for their own self interest. But it is possible that people who help in such situations do so to avoid punishment such as social disapproval. It is also possible that people help simply to avoid feeling bad about themselves. However, this does not appear to explain why empathic concern motivating helping (Fultz et al 1986). Studies such Batson et al 1988 cast doubt on these claims. This view of altruistic behaviour is very important, not only does it contradict the assumption that all motivation is directed towards the egoistic goal of increasing our own welfare but contradicts the notion that human nature is self serving. Another model of altruism is a negative relief model (Cialdini et al 1987) which suggest that when we are experiencing negative states we are motivated to alleviate this condition by helping others. This is personally rewarding and eliminates the negative state. Therefore the motivation for helping is egoistic. This model states that the primary objective of helping behaviour is the enhancement of our mood. Cialdini 1987 carried out an experiment similar to Batson study on ’empathic condition’. This time, just before requesting for help was made, the researcher either offers a bonus or heaps of prayers. The bonus made no difference however, those who received praise were still motivated to help. This demonstrated that under some conditions experiencing a mood lifting event may lessen our motivation to relieve our own negative state by helping others. Cialidini research although showing some evidence of helping for egoistic reasons does also seem to support Batsons more optimistic view of human nature. Smith et al 1989 developed a model empathy joy hypothesis that assumes we enjoy other people’s relief at being helped and so we help others because we are rewarding by their happiness. In Smith’s et al’s study on feedback Smith used a phrase ‘helpers high’ claiming that people get satisfaction when they see that the people they have helped feel better. It has been predicted that if we get feedback it encourages helping behaviour. Batson 1991 argues that another factor that determines altruistic behaviour is the similarity to the person who needs help. We are more likely to feel emphatic concern when we a close attachment with the person in need. As the studies were lab experiments, there was the problem of experimental validity, did the participants believe the situation is real. The experiment was conducted in an artificial environment, which makes it difficult to generalise to real situation and therefore the result shave low ecological validity. Also there were the limitations of experimenter – participant relationship, demand characteristics and the outcome could have been due to the participants knowing that they were being observed. Even though the studies have their limitations they have made a radical contribution to psychological research. The results also vary across cultures and so will also depend on the era pf that culture. It can be seen therefore that research into altruism has emphasised the complexity of the motivations and factors involved when deciding to help someone or not. These studies have clarified causes why some people help and why some do not.